Anthropogenic Changes: Atmosphere, Ground and Oceans

POSTED: 21 November 2018

A Table from the "State of the World" (2006) issued by the World Watch Institute:

Country	Carbon Emission (Mio tons)	per person (tons)	Emission per GDP,PPP (tons per $Mio)	increase 1990-2004 (%)
China	1,021	0.8	158	+67%
India	301	0.3	99	+88%
Europe	955	2.5	94	+6%
Japan	338	2.7	95	+23%
United States	1,616	5.5	147	+19%

NB: China surpassed U.S. emissions in 2009 (see "Industrial Age" Lecture 22).



• Fossil Fuels and Pollution

• Consumption of Energy in the U.S., 1997

Energy Resource	Fraction 1997	Fraction 2002
Petroleum	41%	41%
Natural Gas	24%	22%
Coal	22%	24%
Nuclear	7%	9%
Hydroelectric	5%	3%
others	1%	1%



• Primary Pollutants from Burning of Fossil Fuels

Pollutant	Fraction
Carbon Monoxide	49.1%
Sulfur Oxides	16.4%
Nitrogen Oxides	14.8%
Volatile Organics	13.6%
Particulates	6.0%

• NB: the greenhouse gas CO₂ is not considered a pollutant and is therefore not included in this table!
• NB: Ozone near the surface is actually a pollutant. Ozone causes respiratory problems, crop damage and is corrosive. Surface ozone is the major constituent of smog and is most severe on sunny days when sunlight interacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) from car engines. In agriculture, ozone forms in oxygen-poor soils when microbes break apart nitrogen compounds in fertilizer. Release of NOx is enhanced at higher temperatures due to higher microbial activity.


• Sources of the Primary Pollutants

Process	Fraction
Transportation	46.2%
Stationary Source Fuel Combustion	27.3%
Industrial Processes	15.0%
Miscellaneous	9.0%
Solid Waste Disposal	2.5%



• Acid Rain
• main cause in Eastern U.S.: burning of coal, especially low-grade coal that contains large amounts of Pyrite (FeS₂) produces SO₂
• SO₂ mixes with rain in air to form sulfuric acid, a major contributor to acid rain; much more aggressive than carbonic acid
• main cause in Southern California: combustion engines (cars and trucks) emit nitrogen oxides (NO_x)
• main cause in Central and Imperial Valleys, CA: emit nitrogen oxides (NO_x) through agriculture, use of fertilizers. A study in 2018 estimates the agricultural NOx contribute with as much as 51% to California's NOx output.
• some NO_x mix with rain to form nitric acid, a major contributor to acid rain
• Acid rain is responsible for massive fish kills in freshwater lake (e.g. Scandinavia, Canada, northeastern U.S.)
• Survey of 1000 lakes and thousands of km of streams showed that 75% of lakes and 50% of streams were acidified
• in U.S. the pH value is lowest along the coal mining and burning areas in the Eastern U.S. (sulfuric acid), and in Southern California, where traffic related acid fog is found (nitric acid)
• acid rain is responsible for massive tree kills, especially conifers
• mountain forests damaged, particularly at higher elevations
• $1 billion of damage each year to buildings and monuments
• Relationship between acid rain and coal burning firmly established as damage is most severe downwind from coal burning power plants
• About 50% of Canada's fallout has source in U.S.
• Clean Air Act: passed by U.S. congress in 1991. Legislature requires power plants to reduce annual SO₂ production by 10Mio tons and annual NO₂ production by 2 Mio tons by 2000 (see also air quality index, APPENDIX B).
• Deregulation of U.S. railroad system lowered transport costs to make transport of higher grade western U.S. coal to eastern U.S. more attractive.

Given the fact that the burning of fossil fuels causes global warming and pollutes the atmosphere, and given the fact that some fossil fuels will be used up within a century, it seems clear that we need to cut back our dependency on fossil fuels. Nevertheless the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg/South Africa in the summer of 2002 displayed the great dilemma. The European Union and Brazil proposed the adoption of specific numerical targets for the phasing out of fossil fuels and the increase in usage of renewable energy worldwide. This was strongly opposed by the fossil fuel industry, the governments of most oil producing countries and major fossil fuel consumers, including the U.S. and China.


• Black Carbon
• fine particulate matter (PM 2.5µm or less)
• harmful to humans; affects breathing
• more harmful than larger particulate matter (PM 10µm) as it penetrates deeper into the lungs
• from: imcomplete combustion of fossil fuels (40%), biofuel (20%), biomass (40%)
• emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot
• by far biggest contributor: forest and savanna burning (42%)
other sources
• residential biofuel (18%)
• diesel engines transport (14%)
• diesel engines industrial (10%)
• industrial processes and power generation (10%)
• residential coal burning (6%)
• traps IR radiation/contributes to warming in lower atmosphere
• scatters sunlight/contributes to cooling in upper atmosphere (global dimming)
• on ground reduces albedo; accelerates global warming


• Most Polluted Cities by Particulate Matter (PM)²

PM μg/m3(2004)	City
169	Cairo, Egypt
150	Dehli, India
128	Calcutta, India
125	Taiyuan, China
123	Chongqing, China
109	Kanpur, India
109	Lucknow, India
104	Jakarta, Indonesia
101	Shenyang, China



• Air Quality Index (AQI)

In the US, air quality index (AQI) is assessed by calculating the AQI for 5 major pollutants regulated by the Clean Air Act: ground-level O₃, PM, CO, SO₂ and NO₂. The AQI runs from 0 to 500.

AQI	Level of Health Concern
0-50	good
51-100	moderate
101-150	unhealthy for sensitive people
151-200	unhealthy
201-300	very unhealthy
301-500	hazardous


In San Diego, the AQI is usually around 50 and is a little higher inland (e.g. El Cajon, Alpine).
In summer, values can exceed 100 when ozone levels are high.
After the fires in 2003 and 2007, values briefly exceeded 200, due to high particulate counts.


• Burning of Fossil Fuels: Summary

There are basically four problems with a fossil fuel-based society like ours:
• hydrocarbons, such as oil, are non-renewable and resources are probably exhausted within a few decades but 100 years at most; natural gas will last a little longer; so will coal (300 years)
• burning fossil fuels pollutes the environment (gas burns "cleaner" but still pollutes)
• burning fossil fuels accelerates the greenhouse effect
• burning coal causes acid rain



• Burning of Fossil Fuels: Action is Needed NOW - Some Suggestions

• temporary transition to "cleaner burning" natural gas instead of oil and coal is ok as short-term solution, but only as that
• nuclear power "clean" but poses waste disposal, accident and public security problems
• "traditional" alternative energy (incl. hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar, wind, biomass burning) each have disadvantages, the most serious being that they cannot replace the massive amount of energy produced by fossil fuels
• "modern" alternate energy (incl. fuel cells, hydrogen-based society, fusion) is in its infancy; some of which may never be realized
• more efficient use of energy: more fuel-efficient cars; technically feasible but repeatedly discouraged by oil-industry, especially in U.S.; replace incandescent light bulbs with fluorescent tubes; more energy-efficient household appliances; turn computer off instead of putting it in sleep mode
• societal changes/conservation
• U.S.: yes to energy-independence but costly and hazardous oil shale production is not the right way!



• Nuclear Power

• Nuclear power is considered an immense energy source because a tiny amount of matter transforms into a great amount of thermal energy
• nuclear power is considered as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels because it does not produce green house gases
• at current estimates nuclear fuel reserves will last about three times as long as oil reserves (about 300 years)
• Uranium is the only naturally occuring element that undergoes fission and is the last of the 92 naturally occuring elements. Uranium occurs naturally in granitic plutons
• Most of the naturally occuring Uranium is the relatively stable isotope 238U (half life: 4.5 Billion years), while the unstable 235U used in nuclear reactors accounts for only 0.7%
• Uranium enrichment for fuel rods requires energy
• by-products of uranium production, use and reprossing produces Cesium (Cs) and Strontium (Sr) that can be absorbed by human tissue and do damage. Another by-product is Plutonium (Pu), which is weapons material and the most toxic element on earth. Pu also has a long-half life (24,000 years), i.e. stays around for a long time.
• a nuclear bomb requires only a few km of weapons-grade material. The world currently stockpiles more than 1000 tons.
• the three main disadvantages in nuclear power
• long half life of nuclear waste requires politically and geologically safe storage
• accidents contaminate the environment for a long time (e.g. after the 1986 explosion in Chernobyl, the area around the reactor is still uninhabitable)
• civil security is at risk by terrorist attacks



• Impact of Farming and Industry on Ocean Wildlife

Many species in the oceans are affected by farming and other actions on land where the connection between the two are sometimes not immediately obvious.


• deforestation increases runoff into oceans (and polluting agricultural chemicals with it, see example of California Brown Pelican below)
• deforestation increases soil erosion and more sediments reach coastal areas, thereby choking and devastating entire habitats (e.g. coral reefs)
• mining runoff; e.g. mercury is used to extract gold from dirt
• even pollution of atmosphere is taking toll on ocean life (e.g. coal burning and mercury in fish)
• blue baby syndrome
• due to nitrate in drinking water; can occur at levels of 10mg/l
• leached into groundwater from fertilizers and chemicals used in agriculture, waste dumps or leaky septic tanks
• human body converts nitrate to nitrite to regulate blood pressure, promote wound healing, destroy pathogens in guts
• but excess amounts can cause decreased oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin in babies, leading to death
• official ("safe") limits depend on country: U.S.: 10mg/l; EU: 50 mg/l; Switzerland: 25mg/l
• bad for cows: 20mg/l
• in U.S., levels in most areas are below 4mg/l though levels in agricultural areas have increased ten-fold in last century and may exceed this level
• most vulnerable areas: eastern Nebraska; western Iowa; Wisconsin; lower Illinois, IL; Minnesota, MN; West Texas High plains; Central Valley, CA; Snake River Plain, ID
• 'red tides'
• harmful algal blooms (HAB)
• 'red tide' often a misnomer as HAB can exhibit other colors and not all red tides are toxic
• dinoflagelates produce toxic domoic acid
• leads to shellfish contamination; fish die-offs
• harmful to marine mammals and humans; causes liver disease
• 7-fold increase from 1980 to 2000
• possible causes: anthropogenic water pollution (including iron fertilization); warming oceans; dust storms
• coastal dead zones
• provoked by nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients from fertilizer, large livestock farms, and septic systems
• dramatic increase in recent decades
• there are now 146 dead zones worldwide
• most severe dead zones: (> 20,000 km²) Bay of Bengals, Gulf of Mexico, Arabic Sea, Baltic Sea, East China Sea
• Nitrogen Sources⁽⁷⁾

Source	Mio tons
Fertilizer	80
Nitrogen-fixingcrops	40
Fossil fuels	20
Biomass burning	40
Wetland drainage	10
Land clearing	20
Total human release	210
Total natural fixed-nitrogen production*	140

*Terrestrial sources only; marine sources have not yet been reliably estimated


• The California Brown Pelican
was brought to near extinction in the 1970s/80s, due to the use of DDT on land. Among other things, DDT was widely used against mosquitoes which are vectors for a variety of diseases (e.g. malaria). Land birds greatly suffered by direct poisoning and sterility. They laid eggs with shells so fragile that they would break when the birds sat on them for incubation. Intriguingly, the California Brown Pelican, which only fishes in the oceans, was also affected. This emphasizes that actions on land can have far-reaching consequences for the oceans as well. The California Brown Pelican was affected by run-off in storm drains that started in farming areas and lagoons that were treated for pest control.

A little success story: The Brown Pelican has come back after the use of DDT was outlawed. The pelican now enjoys soaring just inches above the ocean waves in much greater numbers and drops like a rock to fish close to the beach. Its increase in numbers has prompted recent discussions to take the Brown Pelican off the endangered species list.


• Tuna and Mercury
The release of Mercury (by human action) usually occurs far inland (e.g. gold mining and burning of low-grade coal). It is therefore intriguing why Tuna should have increased levels of Mercury in their tissue. It turns out that Mercury can travel long distances when airborne; e.g. power plants in the eastern and central U.S. pollute lakes in Nova Scotia, Canada (see special page).

In animals (and humans), Mercury is not reduced during metabolism. It is accumulated and often stored in the bones instead of Calcium. The Mercury accumulates as animals are eaten along the food chain, with tuna being near the top. Level of Mercury in tuna are now so high that certain groups in the population are advised not to consumer tuna at all or in only small, infrequent portions.



• Global Warming and the Oceans: Coral Bleaching

• the health state of coral reefs is often used to estimate the oceans' health in general
• coral reefs are important source of revenue for tourist industry
• impact on corals has many sources ⁶:
  • physical damage: explosive fishing, anchor damage, construction, boat grounding, reef walking, removal of protective vegetation from islands
  • freshwater runoff: from cities and cleared land
  • introduction of invasive predators
  • climate change: warming, sea level rise, hurricane activity
  • exploitation: fishing, collecting corals, coral mining
  • sedimentation: mining, dredging, filling, construction, soil erosion
  • pollution: industry, oil spills, sewage, agricultural chemicals, fish farming, waste dumping, anti-fouling paint, etc
• coral bleaching
• during coral bleaching the corals discard the algae living on them in symbiosis, leaving white skeletons behind
• since 1980, a quarter of the world's coral reefs have died
• possible causes for bleaching:
• increased water temperatures (of only 1-2°C)
• starvation due to decline in zooplankton
• oxygen starvation (by overfishing)
• change in solar radiation
• changes in water chemistry (see acidification below)
• pathogenic infections (see Lecture 23)
• herbicide run-off
• change in salinity (e.g. new freshwater input)
• unintended poisoning by cyanide fishing
• sedimentation (silt run-off)
• minerals from dust storms
• sunscreen lotion
• even though many corals thrive in warm water, they may bleach when the water gets warmer by just 1-2°C
• major bleaching events occurred in the Caribbean in 2005 and during the 1997/98 El Niño
• different corals react differently to environmental factors; e.g. all of the hydrozoan millepora boschmai colonies near Panama were affected during the 1997/98 El Niño and died within 6 years. The species is now thought to be extinct
• the Great Barrier Reef east off Australia experienced massive bleaching events in 1998 (42% of corals affected), 2002 (54% affected) and the southern part also in 2006

• ¹Wikipedia
• ²air now
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• Real Climate
• Stephen Schneider at Stanford
• Worldwatch Institute

• ⁽¹⁾"Earth's Climate, Past and Future" by William F. Ruddiman, 2000. W.H. Freeman and Company, ISBN: 0-7167-3741-8
  
• ⁽²⁾"State of the World" by The Worldwatch Institute, W.W. Norton and Company.
  Topics change from year to year but here is a short list on recent topics:
  2003 (ISBN: 0-393-32386-2): special 20th Anniversary Edition on spread of and fight against diseases, decline of birds, energy resources, mining and ecosystems, greenhouse effect, Kyoto Protocol, sustainable Earth
  2004 (ISBN: 0-393-32539-3): consumerism and globalization, waste/recycling of resources, catch-up of developing countries, water productivity and increasing shortage.
  2005 (ISBN: 0-393-32666-7): global security, infectious diseases, food security, water, oil economy, postwar societies
  2006 (ISBN: 0-393-32771-X): China and India, global meat industry, freshwater, renewable energy, Mercury, sustainable development, corporations
  2007 (ISBN: 0-393-32923-0): urban future, water and sanitation, urban farming, transportation, energy, natural disaster risks, public health, poverty
  2008 (ISBN: 0-393-33031-1): toward a sustainable global economy, rethinking progress, sustainable lifestyle, low-carbon economy, water, biodiversity, human energy, trade governance
  
• ⁽³⁾check out Worldwatch Institute web site
• "Earthshock" by Andrew Robinson, 1993, Thames and Hudson, ISBN: 0-500-27738-9
• ⁽⁴⁾"Global Warming" by John Houghton, 1999, Cambridge Univ. Press, ISBN: 0-521-62932-2
• ⁽⁵⁾"Natural Disasters" by Patrick Abbott. MacGraw Hill
• ⁽⁶⁾Time, Oct 27, 2014.
• ⁽⁷⁾Worldwatch Institute; Toxic Fertility; 2001; cited: World Resources Institute, "Global Nitrogen Glut", www.wri.org/wri/wr-98-99/nutrient.htm

1. coal burning power plants
2. traffic
3. wildfires

1. 1°C
2. 2°C
3. 5°C
4. 10°C
5. bleaching happens as a result of cooling

1. they warm
2. they get opaque
3. they acidify
4. they cool

1. canning industry
2. coal-burning power plants
3. fishing boats
4. natural metabolism

1. Aspirin
2. Antibiotics
3. DDT
4. Mercury
5. PCB